Identity Constructions and Inter-Organizational Collaboration: Islamic Faith-Based Organizations and the Polio Vaccination Stoppage in Northern Nigeria

In the context of a Northern Nigerian vaccination stoppage by Islamic faith-based organisations (FBOs) in 2003-2004, this study - informed by literature in communication studies on inter-organisational collaboration (IOC) - focuses on the role of FBOs in the global effort to eradicate polio. Through a comparative analysis of 119 newspaper statements attributed to 19 spokespersons in 4 Nigerian newspapers, the study examined (a) the identities the FBOs claimed and those they constructed for federal government organisations (FGO) and global north organisations (GNOs) and (b) the FBOs' reports of FGO/GNO communication practices that could have impeded IOC. Next is a review of the pertinent literature, followed by presentations of the study's research questions, methods, results, and discussion.

As Olufowote explains, the northern Nigerian vaccination stoppage in 4 chronological stages. In the first stage, the president of the Supreme Council for Sharia in Nigeria (SCSN) held a press conference in which he (a) aired rising sentiment among his Northern Nigerian constituents that the vaccinations were part of a Western plot to depopulate Muslim communities and (b) called for an immediate halt of the campaigns until the vaccines could be tested and declared safe. In the second stage, 3 northern states halted their campaigns, and 2 other states expressed public doubts about the vaccination's safety. In the third stage, teams consisting of representatives from the World Health Organization (WHO) and the federal government appealed directly to the northern states. As a result, 3 northern states came out in public support of the campaigns. In the fourth stage, various parties (e.g., Islamic FBOs, state and federal governments, integrated teams) conducted laboratory tests of the vaccines in Nigeria and other countries (e.g., Indonesia). There were conflicting results, as some argued the tests revealed that the polio vaccines contained undeclared substances, while others argued they contained insignificant and harmless quantities of fertility hormones. Although the vaccination campaigns proceeded in 2004, pockets of resistance remained.

To connect this situation to the analysis he undertook, Olufowote reviews some of the literature on non-profit organisations (NPOs), including FBOs, as well as IOCs, north-south partnerships, south-south partnerships, and IOC with FBOs during health epidemics such as HIV/AIDS. He then lays out his own study's research questions: "RQ1: What organizational identities did the Islamic faith-based organizations claim within the context of the polio vaccination stoppage in northern Nigeria? What organizational identities did the Islamic faith-based organizations construct of federal government and global north organizations within the context of the stoppage? RQ3: Which communication practices by federal government and global north organizations did the Islamic faith-based organizations describe that can beheld responsible for impeding inter-organizational collaboration during the stoppage?"

The author's analysis revealed:

• For RQ1, the Islamic FBOs claimed a collective identity of concern for representing northern Nigerians and concern for their safety. Reports suggest concerns about the vaccines first came from the populace. The FBOs were concerned about the challenges to health the vaccinations could pose, namely female sterilisation and the transmission of HIV/AIDS. Although a variety of allegations have been made about the FBOs' motives (e.g., political) for halting the vaccinations, they made it clear their motive was just and humane.
• For RQ2, the study found the FBOs constructed the FGOs as unjust in their disinterest in the health and lives of northern Nigerian children. They also accused the FGOs of cover-ups, secrecy, and lack of transparency.
• For RQ2, FBOs constructed the identity of GNOs as preoccupied with depopulation, operating above the law, and as bullies.
• For RQ3, the study found the FBOs describing communication practices by FGOs and GNOs as authoritarian, closed, and deceptive.

Olufowote provides quoted examples throughout, such as this illustration of an FBO spokesperson's issue with what he saw as the WHO's withholding of information and the lack of transparency: "You have not told people everything about polio vaccine, all you do is propagate the WHO advocacy programme of pushing the programme, targeting group A, B, C,how to deal with the media, ten ways of writing to government officials, ten ways of involving new partners. You did not mention a word about the fact that the vaccine was manufactured in Green Monkey kidneys, which also harbour simian viruses that are lethal like HIV ("Polio vaccine opposition vindicated, anti-pregnancy agent identified," November 8 2003).

Reflecting on the findings, Olufowote notes that: "These multiple identity constructions place the FBOs' collective identity in opposition to those of the FGOs and GNOs. The FBOs claim a collective identity of care/concern, morality, and selflessness. On the other hand, they construct the FGOs and GNOs as immoral, uncaring of northerners, and selfish. Moreover, whereas the FBOs construct their own identity as participatory (i.e., working on behalf of the people), they construct the FGOs and GNOs as domineering (e.g., above the law, bullies)." He explains this by providing some historical context that acknowledges several interconnected incidents. For example, the northern states' adoption of sharia law in 1999 may have reinforced their Islamic identity and forged stronger identifications with Islamic states while simultaneously exacerbating differences with a secular federal government and non-Muslim world.

"These stakeholder identity constructions in the print media - to the degree they influence audiences - can facilitate or impede the FBOs' IOCs with stakeholders. Whereas they facilitate a participatory relationship with constituents who may come to see the FBOs as working on their behalf, their constructions are likely to impede collaboration with FGOs and GNOs, especially if these stakeholders become distrustful and/or retaliatory. Yet, the possibility exists that the FBOs' discourse can facilitate IOC if stakeholders are sensitive to the negative attributions and are determined to change the FBOs' opinions." To that end, Olufowote offers several suggestions for improving IOC during polio eradication in northern Nigeria. First, in light of the FBOs' attributions (e.g., unjust), public relations campaigns that communicate apologies (mortification) and positive qualities of the FGO or GNO (bolstering) such as respect for persons and Nigerian law may be appropriate. Second, in response to unethical and uncaring attributions, FGOs/GNOs need to communicate genuine concern for the northern communities. This can be accomplished by partnering with FBOs and, for example, engage in socially responsible actions such as philanthropy. Third, because of attributions of being domineering, GNOs can better facilitate IOC by engaging in democratic practices that reflect an understanding of communities as equal partners.

The paper concludes with a discussion of limitations of the study and suggestions for future research, such as moving beyond the 2003-2004 period to examine IOC during more recent disruptive moments in the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI)'s quest to eradicate polio in Northern Nigeria (e.g., the influence of Boko Haram).