Conceptualising Accountability: An Approach to Measurement

"In exploring Kenyans' experience of the opportunity to question those in power, two key considerations emerged - people's awareness of the right to question and the way in which this right can be exercised in practice."

From the BBC Media Development website: "The paper presents a definition of accountability that underpins BBC Media Action's approach to the governance interventions that form part of its global work funded by DFID [the Department for International Development]." The components of both answerability and enforceability as aspects of accountability are considered, as well as the direct and indirect ways in which the media can influence these components and their drivers.

"The paper then proposes a framework through which to explore the degree to which individuals are empowered in this area, and demonstrates the application of this framework in relation to Kenyan political accountability through qualitative research findings. Finally, this paper presents a tool to measure one aspect of such empowerment quantitatively, and discusses future challenges and next steps in effectively evaluating the impact of accountability-focused interventions."

The paper develops the definition of accountability as a concept, a process, and a moral sentiment. It examines the "vertical" nature of it from citizens through mass media and civil society and the "horizontal" nature through institutions of the state checking abuses of other state agencies and branches of government. Answerability and enforcement are imposed sanctions or consequences of failing to be accountable. Media has a role as a principal "directly demanding answerability from power holders and contributing to enforcement through reputational damage by exposing inadequacy or lack of information and explanation. The media also has the potential to create opportunities for, and facilitate more effective engagement with, accountability mechanisms for other actors, such as civil society."

The BBC Media Action organisational approach to media and accountability, presented as a simplified model, incorporates:

• increased demand from citizens for accountable governance
• the existence of media regulation and access to information policies that support accountability
• politically empowered populations
• increased engagement between a state and its citizens
• citizen/civil society involvement in shaping and making decisions
• more effective local media functioning as an institutional driver of accountability

The following framework from Alsop & Heinsohn (2005) was chosen to explore empowerment in relation to accountability and the degrees of empowerment as applied to the concepts of requiring and sanctioning, outlined below:

• Existence of choice - does the individual have an opportunity to question or sanction power holders?
• Use of choice - does the individual act on that opportunity to question or sanction power holders?
• Achievement of choice - does acting on the choice to question or sanction power holders result in the desired outcome?

A qualitative research project conducted in Kenya explored citizen perceptions of accountability and questioning. The research consisted of 30 focus group discussions with adults aged 18+ in urban and rural locations across all eight regions of Kenya. It was found that Kenyans perceived barriers in their path to questioning people in power, including: possible intimidation or retaliation, fear of violence, language barriers, apathy towards political programmes, mistrust in politicians, and high levels of cynicism about government leading to low expectations of the outcomes of questioning.

The research examined attitudes toward voting as a way of sanctioning government. It was found that Kenyans do not necessarily exercise their right to vote in order to sanction leaders. In assessing the use of voter choice in relation to sanctioning, Kenyans may vote on tribal affiliation, populist promises made at rallies, or other motivations not based upon information related to governance. Fears about the process included lack of anonymity, lack of legitimacy of the process, possible violence, and lack of subsequent responsive behaviours by those elected.

"BBC Media Action's research shows that having an awareness of the right to act does not necessarily result in taking action, and that expectations of the outcome can negatively influence people’s intention to take action." In seeking to develop standard measurements in the Kenyan context of the links between awareness of the right to action and follow-through to outcomes of action, further research tested the validity of the following qualitative indicators and measurements:

1. Awareness of right to take action - "People like me are entitled to question government officials about their decisions and actions."
2. Understanding of how to take action - "There are ways for people like me to question government officials about their decisions and actions."
3. Intention to take action - "If there was a way for people like me to question government officials, I would raise an issue that mattered to me."
4. Achievement of outcome - "I am satisfied with the account that government officials currently give of their decisions and actions."

In conclusion, the empowerment framework proposed by Alsop & Heinsohn (2005) for measuring degrees of empowerment was found "to resonate with individual experiences of accountability and sanctioning in Kenya....The findings of the research provide support for four indicators of empowerment in relation to the requiring an account and sanctioning aspects of this concept." Further research is needed to understand the distinct barriers and enablers and to establish qualitative tools in other countries. "BBC Media Action will use opportunities to conduct standard, cross-cultural measurement of the outcomes and impacts of accountability-focused projects, to further develop, refine and validate measurement frameworks and tools."